Moreover, when looking at Geer... free essay sample

Moreover, when looking at Geertz book Religion as a Cultural System Geertz paid more attention to the ways in which religion is articulated, how religion connects with the spiritual aspects and sorcery, his definition of religion is that Religion is a system of symbols which acts to establish powerful, pervasive and long-lasting moods and motivations. Religion is mostly used in ways that it paints a picture of how a person should live and the way things really are, everyone has specific values that they hold but it might differ from another individuals morals and value they hold. Each person performs religious practices differently but the interpretation of religion is the one gets everyone confused. For example the Indigenous view dream time as a religion where they sing and write stories for generations, witchcraft and sorcery might also be viewed as a religion to some people and then we have Islamic, Christianity and science, which people also beliefs and that belief might have a certain affect on them including their prospective of how they view the world. We will write a custom essay sample on Moreover, when looking at Geer or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page As Greetz mentioned Some of the most important effects of the religious perspective come through a redefinition of our daily life in life of religious perspectives (Geertz 1973, clothing perceptions†¦pp. 24-35).Additionally, In comparison to Linda H. Connor and Geoffrey Samuels book Healing Powers and Modernity focuses more on the indigenous healings and Islamic perception of sorcery. He believes that many people luck proper education in Indonesia therefore are unaware of western healings compared to the mens who are educated. The connotation of illness still largely constituted through social relations that have persisted from one generation to the next. Sorcery has a continuity of meaning from pre-Islamic times to the present because it has always provided an explanatory link between illness and ever-present strains in village social relationships. From the villagers point of view, local variants of biomedicine are part of state-promoted modernist discourse. Until such time as a different engagement with the date evolves through redistributions of power and knowledge, rural people will continue to favour those healing resources that are given to them and that could involve sorcery in other hand sorcery can easily be accessed to compared to western medicine due to the cost of medication while traditional healing is less expensive or might even be free depending on agreement, which are embedded in the social field of the village.Healing and power in Indonesia are formed into two medical systems, which are the biomedicine and indigenous medicine. The, Elah villagers have access to both. The Indigenous healings are made through body customary medical practices performed by numerous skilled Belian. The curing practices of Belian originated in the Waktu Telu religion. There are approximately thirty seven Balinese people who lives in the Elah village, mostly in their forties and older. When illnesses or diseases occurs in that village, it is u sually treated through different magic practices such as teeth treatment, illnesses, deliverance of babies, producing love magic and sorcery, (Hunter 2001). Even though there is other safer ways to delivering baby apart from using magic the Belian still choose to do sorcery because they believe it works better and most people feel that its cheaper to access. In regards to John P. Taylors book, he describes Nakaemas, which is another word for sorcery/witchcraft in the Vanuatu society to be resonated in an everyday life of people in Vanuatu. Nakaema is not defined as broader practice of magic that involves discussions of sorcery or witchcraft in the academic literature but rather a wicked practices that is seen mostly in the North Efate, some of the practices includes poisoning, bodily possession, transforming people into certain animals such as Dogs and sometimes transforming them into devil itself, they control human body and mind and even death can occur through Nakaemas. Throughout the text Taylor had mentioned that victims are usually attacked due to jealousy, wealth, gossips and ownerships. He believes that those practices are a com bination of the moral, physical and sacred sacred force.Furthermore, the anthropologists believe that when taking a spiritual belief one has to search and know which agency they are from and who it affects. They believe that humans are both the sources and bearers of agency, individual such as politicians, lawyers, and presidents also undergo self-protection and secure themselves from the forces attacks of witchcraft; those protections are done through a spiritual healers called Klevas who uses multiple traditional medicine such as plants and other healing practices to protect the individuals from witchcraft. Klevas also helps reveal the causes done by Nakaema, protect people from a curse and also bring an end to a curse and other form of Nakaemas power. (Taylor 2015). Taylor describes Kleva as the human interaction between sacred power of Christianity and sorcery with the combination powers of black and white magic.

Correctional theory and policy Essays

Correctional theory and policy Essays Correctional theory and policy Essay Correctional theory and policy Essay in his survey of this plan, found that the consequence on cut downing recidivism worked for the first twelvemonth. However, the consequence seemed to vanish after two old ages ( Martinson, 1974, p. 33 ) . Does sentence length makes a difference in recidivism rates? It has been found that its consequence varies harmonizing to the type of wrongdoer. For illustration, Gerrity ( 1956 ) divided his wrongdoers into three classs – prosocial , anti-social , and manipulative ( Martinson, 1974, p. 37 ) . His findings with the prosocial wrongdoers was low recidivism rates which was non dependent on sentence length. The antisocial wrongdoer appeared to make better with shorter sentences while the manipulative wrongdoer did better with longer sentences ( Martinson, 1974, p. 37 ) . Psychotherapy in community scenes may work but minimum grounds exists to find true decrease in recidivism rates ( Martinson, 1974, p. 40 ) . OBrien ( 1961 ) in his survey of a community based plan found that they produce small betterment ( Martinson, 1974, p. 40 ) . When comparing probation/parole versus prison, Wilkins ( 1958 ) found that the usage of probation did non increase recidivism rates significantly ( Martinson, 1974, p. 41 ) . Another survey conducted by the State of Michigan ( 1963 ) demonstrated the increased usage of probation led to improved recidivism rates ( Martinson, 1974, p. 42 ) . Yet, Babst and Shoham suggested a pessimistic decision when it concerns the bounds of intervention plans due to the features of wrongdoers such as age, type of discourtesy, and if they are a first clip wrongdoer. Some will make good while others do non ( Martinson, 1974, p. 42 ) . Johnson ( 1926 ) found that intensive supervising does non supply the rehabilitative benefits it claims ( Martinson, 1974, p. 46 ) . Martinson concludes his article with the position that there may be something that works or even working now but we have non discovered as yet that may discourage instead than remedy and reform a convicted wrongdoer every bit good as prevent offense ( Martinson, 1974, p. 50 ) . He believes that a better agencies of societal control may be possible ( Martinson, 1974, p. 50 ) . Challenge THE NOTHING WORKS VIEWPOINT Ted Palmer did non hold with Martinson s decision of nothing works . At the clip of Martinson s survey, meta-analysis was non available. He reviewed Martinson s readings of what the surveies really found ( Cullen and Jonson, 2012, pp. 154-155 ) . Palmer noted that Martinson had cited 82 surveies that included recidivism informations and found that 39 of the surveies could be categorized as decreased recidivism ( Cullen and Jonson, 2012, p. 155 ) He farther reported that there was sufficient grounds that half the clip the intervention worked ( Cullen and Jonson, 2012, p. 156 ) . Palmer felt that if true, so one should look at what was different from those that were non successful and believe that rehabilitation is patterned and non random ( Cullen and Jonson, 2012, p. 156 ) . In the 1990s, a meta-analysis was done on available surveies which evaluates surveies and uses statistics to find the relationship between the intervention intercession and the steps of recidivism. It can be zero , positive or negative Zero meant no consequence on recidivism. Positive meant it increases recidivism. Negative meant it reduced recidivism. This relationship is known as the consequence size ( Cullen and Jonson,2012, p. 160 ) . The meta-analysis found that the overall consequence of rehabilitative plans is +.10 which means that the recidivism rate for control groups were approximately 10 % higher than the intervention group. This clearly contradicts Martinson s findings ( Cullen and Jonson, 2012, p. 162 ) . The research showed that Martinson s decision was really a anticipation of homogeneousness of consequence sizes. The meta-analysis suggested that the effects of intervention plans are really heterogenous. It further shows that some plans had no consequence. Yet, other types of plans did the antonym. They demonstrated consequence sizes of +.25 or higher which means the recidivism rates for intervention groups would be 37.5 % where control groups would hold 62.5 % . The Canadian bookmans who conducted the meta-analysis developed three chief rules of effectual intercession that if followed by the plans would ensue in a meaningful decrease in recidivism ( Cullen and Jonson, 2012, p. 162 ) . The consequence of meta-analysis on Martinson s nothing works philosophy gave rehabilitation protagonists qualitative grounds that intervention plans do cut down recidivism and that some plans are effectual ( Cullen and Jonson, 2012, pp. 163-164 ) . Principles OF EFFECTIVE INTERVENTION Harmonizing to Cullen and Jonson ( 2012 ) , a better and more systematic attack is to implement plans based on the rules of effectual intervention . Empirical grounds has shown that it is the most powerful through empirical observation justified intervention paradigm available ( Cullen and Jonson, 2012, p. 165 ) . The rules of effectual intercession are ( 1 ) intercession should aim known forecasters of offense and recidivism. This is known as the needs rule. There are two forecasters that categorizes an wrongdoer as at hazard for offense. The first is inactive. These represent the wrongdoer s condemnable history and can non be changed. The 2nd forecasters are known as dynamic. These include antisocial attitudes and values which can be changed ( Cullen and Jonson, 2012, pp. 166-167 ; Andrews and Bonta, 2010, p. 47 ) ; ( 2 ) intercession requires that intervention services be based on cognitive behavioural intercession. This rule is besides known as the responsivity rule ( Cullen and Jonson, 2012, pp. 167-168 ; Andrews and Bonta, 2010, p. 48 ) . Harmonizing to Andrews ( 1995 ) , intercessions must include cognitive behavioural and societal larning techniques of mold, graduated pattern, function playing, support, extinction, resource proviso, concrete verbal suggestions ( Cullen and Jonson, 2012, p. 168 ) . The support must be positive and services intense. If the intercessions used do non turn to the factors, it will non be effectual ( Cullen and Jonson, 2012, 168 ) ; ( 3 ) intercession is the usage of intercession interventions that address the dynamic hazard factors of high hazard wrongdoers ( Andrews and Bonta, 2010, p. 49-50 ) . Cullen and Johnson ( 2012 ) suggest that high hazard wrongdoers can alter and hold demonstrated that intervention services provided a major nest eggs and recidivism ( Cullen and Jonson, 2012, p. 168 ) . It was further noted that successful appraisal of high hazard wrongdoers is possible when the trust of clinical judgements of couns ellors are non used ( Cullen and Jonson, 2012, p. 168 ) . Clinical judgements are similar to insider cognition ( Cullen and Jonson, 2012, p. 168 ) ; and ( 4 ) intercession is that we must take into consideration other factors and reference these to obtain an addition in intervention effectivity and run intoing the wrongdoer s demands ( Andrews and Bonta, 2010, pp. 50-52 ) For this, it is indispensable to carry on intercessions within the community, guarantee good trained staff are interpersonally positive, are monitored and cognize how to present the intervention service ( Cullen and Jonson, 2012, p. 169 ) . Follow-up on wrongdoers should be done after completion of intervention plan and supply aftercare when needed. Specific responsivity is indispensable as the intervention should be carried out and matched to the wrongdoers larning manner for it to be effectual. One illustration given by Cullen and Jonson ( 2012 ) , wherein all wrongdoers with a low IQ may non react good to verbal intercessions but respond better to intercessions that provide touchable reinforcing stimuluss and insistent behavioral dry run and determining skills ( p. 169 ) . RESTORATIVE JUSTICE The function of renewing justness ( RJ ) is to enforce some signifier of penalty while integrating efforts to rehabilitate the wrongdoer every bit good as conveying damages to the victim by the wrongdoer. RJ has three cardinal rules: 1 ) offense is harmful to the community, the victims every bit good as to the wrongdoer ; 2 ) its end should be to change by reversal the injury caused by the condemnable act ; and 3 ) this is accomplished through sentencing and correctional plans that are geared to reconstruct the victims, the community and the wrongdoer to the original province before the offense ( Cullen and Jonson, 2012, pp. 129-130 ) . There are two attacks to RJ. The first is the victim becomes cardinal to the condemning process ( Cullen and Jonson, 2012, p. 130 ) . With this attack, the province serves more as an supreme authority instead than an adversary and allows victims the chance to voice their feelings and present their involvements in the affair ( Cullen and Jonson, 2012, p. 130 ) . The 2nd attack is the reintegration of the wrongdoer into the community and to dishonor the act instead than stigmatise the individual for the remainder of his or her life ( Cullen and Jonson, 2012, p. 130 ) . If the wrongdoer is non successfully reintegrated into the community, farther offense will be committed. It is common that a victim-offender conference is held with the end to let the wrongdoer to demo compunction and come to some type of damages that is acceptable to both the victim and the wrongdoer. Cullen and his co-workers believe RJ is an appealing theory for three grounds. The first is that it seems to profit all parties as it lessens the injury to all. Second, it is supported by both progressives and conservativists as they argue that the correctional system pays excessively much attending on the wrongdoer while pretermiting the victim. The 3rd ground is the pickings of duty and answerability for his actions with a societal exchange with the victim ( Cullen and Jonson, 2012, pp.132-133 ) . There may be factors that may do RJ non to successfully make its intended end such as the justness job, the prison job, and the criminological job ( Cullen and Jonson, 2012, p. 137 ) . There are many theories of corrections stressing penalty. It is more focussed on acquiring justness. With RJ, the wrongdoer can apologize but may neglect to truly reconstruct the victim. In this sense, RJ does non supply justness but transforms into an injustice for the victim ( Cullen and Jonson, 2012, p. 137 ) . The 2nd issue is that RJ can be implemented while in prison where they may hold the conferences and the wrongdoer may take to pay monies from his prison net incomes but the end is to take wrongdoers from the condemnable justness plan so that justness can be achieved in the community ( Cullen and Jonson, 2012, p. 137 ) . The concluding issue for RJ is the criminological job. The issue stems from whether the behaviour of the wrongdoer can be changed and of the wish to alter and reconstruct the victim. RJ has been shown through research to cut down recidivism to the extent as human service intercession. However, it does non cut down recidivism every bit good every bit rehabilitate as RJ is based on a theory of offense ; it does non aim alteration of known forecasters of recidivism, its intercessions is excessively weak to alter serious wrongdoers and ignores the rules of effectual correctional intercession ( Cullen and Jonson, 2012, pp 134-139 ) . Early Intervention Early intercession is indispensable as it is effectual in cut downing offense and costs ( Cullen and Jonson, 2012, p. 202 ) . There is much to be learned from the life rhythm of a kid as it develops.. Surveies have shown that kids develop condemnable inclinations early on childhood such as aggression ( hit, bite, kick, and jostle one another ) . Yet, they are non seen as felons and are easy ignored ( Cullen and Jonson, 2012, pp. 170-171 ) . Terri Moffit ( 1993 ) developed a developmental theory of antisocial behaviour which was consistent with traditional criminology. She found that striplings normally commit offenses during their teenage old ages. However, she farther indicated that the roots of chronic offending begins in early childhood ( Cullen and Jonson, 2012, pp. 175-177 ) . Moffit s theory was of import because it legitimized two positions about offenses. The first is that chronic piquing Begins in early childhood. The 2nd is that continuity is the trademark of the little group of life-course relentless antisocial individuals whereas the group does non alter across the life class ( Cullen and Jonson, 2012, p. 176 ) . Moffit s theory demonstrates that early antisocial behaviour is a strong marauder of delinquency ( Cullen and Jonson, 2012, p. 176 ) . Harmonizing to Robins, adult societal behaviour requires childhood and societal behaviour. There are some cautions which must be kept in head such as the fact that holding behavior jobs during early childhood does non intend that it will take to a life of offense. If stableness in behaviour is invariably in problem kids will most probably be troubled teens. Antisocial grownups who are imprisoned normally have their roots in early childhood ( Cullen and Jonson p 177 ) . Therefore, childhood criminology provides the rational decision that early intercession is necessary. Longitudinal surveies are the lone manner to capture how and when condemnable callings unfold ( Cullen and Jonson, 2012, p. 177 ) . By supplying early intercession, it can cut down the possible costs and may even forestall the continuity of life-course relentless wrongdoers. Longitudinal surveies are dearly-won and span over a period of old ages but the information obtained brings forth new findings that allow the corr ectional system to concentrate on early intercession much Oklahoman and create age based plans from pre-school to household therapy, It is cost effectual and has strong public support ( Cullen and Jonson, 2012, pp. 177-202 ) . PUBLIC OPINION AND REHABILITATION Harmonizing to Cullen, Vose, Lero-Jonson, and Unnever ( 2007 ) , study research has shown that the public supports a social public assistance rehabilitative attack to crime ( p. 109 ) . Opinion polls have besides revealed that the bulk of Americans support policies such as capital penalty, three work stoppages Torahs and harsher condemnable tribunals ( Cullen, et Al, 2007, p. 110 ) . However, there is still ideological infinite for reformatory scheduling such as early intercession ( Cullen, et Al, 2007, p. 111 ) . In another canvass, utilizing a Likert graduated table, research workers asked the respondents to province what should be the prison s focal point. The response picks were rehabilitative , punishment , or protect society . In a forced pick response set, the surveies have been consistent in uncovering that from a one-fourth to half of the respondents selected rehabilitation as their preferable end attack ( Cullen, et Al, 2007, p. 112 ) . The United States is non merely a sci entific state but besides a state that values societal public assistance ( Cullen, et Al, 2007, p. 120 ) . After reappraisal of the research it is evident that the public strongly supports early intercession. Decision Through the research and qualitative grounds provided, it has been demonstrated that rehabilitation and early intercession plants. It is besides strongly supported by the populace. There is still much to be learned. However, through new research new and improved plans can be created to increase the success of rehabilitation and the decrease of recidivism. After reexamining Martinson s nothing works philosophy and the findings of Ted Palmer and the Canadian bookmans meta-analysis, it is clear that intervention plans cut down recidivism if done right and evaluated through meta-analysis from clip to clip to mensurate the continuity of its effectivity. Mentions Martinson, R. 1974. What Works? Questions and Answers About Prison Reform. The Public Interest35 ( Spring ) :22-54. Andrews, D. A. , and J. Bonta. 2010.The Psychology of Criminal Conduct.New Providence, NJ: Anderson.Chapter 2, pp. 49-78, The Empirical Base of PCC and the RNR Model of Assessment and Crime Prevention Through Human Service. Cullen, F. T. and C. L. Jonson. 2012.Correctional Theory: Context and Consequences.Chapter 7. Rehabilitation: What Works to Change Offenders. Cullen, F. T. and C. L. Jonson. 2012.Correctional Theory: Context and Consequences. Chapter 8, Early Intervention: Salvaging Children From a Life in Crime, Cullen, F. T. B. A. Vose, C. L. Jonson, and J. D. Unnever. 2007. Public Support for Early Intervention: Is Child Salvaging a Habit of the Heart? Victims and Wrongdoers2 ( No. 2 ) :109-124. 1